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Transfer of Science
and Technology to Muslim Countries
Ibrahim B. Syed,
Ph. D.
President
Islamic Research Foundation International, Inc.
7102 W. Shefford Lane
Louisville, KY 40242-6462, USA
E-mail:
IRFI@INAME.COM
Website:
http://WWW.IRFI.ORG
A large number of highly talented Muslim professionals live
in North America, Australia, Europe, etc., who can assist in transferring
science and technology to the Muslim countries. The following solutions are
offered to achieve this technology transfer:
A central registry-clearinghouse should be developed under
the charge of a reputable Muslim Organization. All Muslim scientists, engineers,
health professionals, etc., who are willing to assist in the development of
Muslim countries should be invited to register.
All Muslim countries should be informed of the availability
of this Muslim Talent Pool. The countries should contact the Clearinghouse,
detailing their specific needs. The host country can request the services of
certain individual(s) listed in the Talent Pool. All expenses including travel,
boarding and lodging should preferably be borne by the host country; in special
circumstances the Clearinghouse may subsidize the expenses. It is expected that
the Muslim experts would volunteer their time and will not accept any fee,
honorarium or salary for their services.
The Clearinghouse should be funded by wealthy Muslim nations
to defray the set-up costs and operating expenses.
Programs to assist developing countries are in existence;
these include: The International Atomic Energy Agency, located in Vienna,
Austria; TOKTEN (Transfer of Technology Through Expatriate Nationals)-a Program
financed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), WHO (World Health
Organization) and other U.N. branches. OIC (Organization of Islamic Conference),
IDB (Islamic Development Bank), ISESCO (Islamic Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organization) and other philanthropic Islamic organizations at the
International level can actively participate and cooperate in achieving Science
and Technology Transfer to the developing Muslim countries.
INTRODUCTION
The rise of the Muslims to the zenith of civilization in a
period of four decades was based on Al-Islam's emphasis on learning. This is
obvious when one takes a look at the Qur'an and the traditions of Prophet
Muhammad (SAS) which are filled with references to learning, education,
observation, and the use of reason. The very first verse of the Qur'an revealed
to the Prophet of Al-Islam (SAS) on the night of power (Laylathul Qadr) in the
month of Ramadan in 611 A.D. reads:
"Read: In the
name of thy Lord who created man from a clot. Read: And they Lord is the Most
Generous Who taught by the pen, taught man that which he knew not."
Surah Al-Alaq, 96:1-5
"And they shall say had we but listened or
used reason, we would not among the inmates of the burning fire."
Al Mulk, 67:10
"Are those who
have knowledge and those who have no knowledge alike? Only the men of
understanding are mindful." Al Zumar, 39:9.
The Qur'an exhorts the Muslims to scientific research:
" And whoso bringeth the truth and
believeth therein such are the dutiful." Surah Al Zumar, 39:33
Every Muslim man's and every Muslim woman's prayer should
be:
"My Lord! Enrich me with knowledge."
Surah TA HA, 20:114.
The pursuit of knowledge and the use of reason, based on
sense of observation is made obligatory on every Muslim man and woman.
The following traditions of the Prophet (SAS) supplement the
foregoing teachings of the Qur'an in the following way:
(1) Seek knowledge "even though it be in China."
(2) "The acquisition of knowledge is compulsory for every
Muslim, whether male or female."
(3) "The ink of the scholar is more sacred than the blood of
the martyr."
(4) "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave."
(5) "God has revealed to me, 'Whoever walks in the pursuit of
Knowledge I facilitate for him the way to heaven.'
(6) "The best form of worship is the pursuit of knowledge."
(7) "Scholars should endeavor to spread knowledge and provide
education to people who have been deprived of it. For, where knowledge is
hidden it disappears."
(8) Some one asked the Prophet (SAS): "Who is the biggest
scholar?" He replied: "He who is constantly trying to learn from others, for a
scholar is every hungry for more knowledge."
(9) "Seek for knowledge and wisdom, for whatever the vessel
from which it flows, you will never be the loser."
(10) "Thinking deep for one hour (with sincerity) is better
than 70 years of (mechanical) worship."
(11) "Worship without knowledge, has no goodness in it and
knowledge without understanding has no goodness in it. And the recitation of
the Qur'an, which is not thoughtful
has no goodness in it."
(12) "To listen to the words of the learned and to instill
unto others the lessons of science is better than religious exercises."
(13) "Acquire knowledge: it enables its possessor to
distinguish right from the wrong, it lights the way to heaven; it is our friend
in the desert, our society in solitude, our companion when friendless; it guides
us to happiness; it sustains us in misery; it is an ornament among friends and
an armor against enemies."
MUSLIM HERITAGE IN
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Prophet Muhammad(SAS) was able to unite the Arab tribes who
had been torn by revenge, rivalry, and internal fights, and produced a strong
nation, that acquired and ruled simultaneously the two known empires at that
time, namely the Persian and Byzantine Empires. The Islamic Empire extended from
the Atlantic Ocean on the West to the borders of China on the East. Only 80
years after the death of their Prophet the Muslims crossed to Europe to rule
Spain for more than 700 years. The Muslims preserved the cultures of the
conquered lands.
The Islamic Empire for more than 1,000 years remained the
most advanced and civilized nation in the world. This is because Al-Islam
stressed the importance and respect of learning, forbade destruction,
developed in Muslims the respect for authority, discipline, and tolerance
for other religions. The Muslims recognized excellence and hungered
intellectually. The teachings of Qur'an and Sunnah drove many Muslims to their
accomplishments in sciences and medicine.
By the tenth century their zeal and enthusiasms for learning
resulted in all essential Greek medical and scientific writings being translated
into Arabic in Damascus, Cairo, and Baghdad. Arabic became the international
language of learning and diplomacy. The center of scientific knowledge and
activity shifted eastward, and Baghdad emerged as the capitol of the scientific
world. The Muslims became scientific innovators with originality and
productivity. The rise of Muslims to the zenith of civilization lasted over a
thousand years. During this millennium Muslims contributed vastly to the
enhancements of arts, science and cultural growth of mankind.
For example Islamic medicine is one of the most famous and
best known facets of Islamic civilization, and in which the Muslims most
excelled. The Muslims were the great torchbearers of international scientific
research. Some of the best and most eloquent praises of science ever written
came from the pens of Muslim scientists who considered their work to be acts of
worship. The same motives led to the establishment of Al-Azhar(800 A.D.) the
first university in the world. They hit the "source ball of knowledge" over the
fence to Europe. In the words of Campbell, "The European medical system is
Arabian not only in origin but also in its structure. The Arabs are the
intellectual forbearers of the Europeans." In fact the Muslims are directly
responsible for the European Renaissance.
At the apex of its glory around the tenth century Cordoba,
the capital of Muslim Spain, had pavements, street lighting, three hundred
public baths, parks, palaces, one hundred thousand houses and seventy libraries.
There were close to half a million books in a single library whereas the whole
of France contained much less than this figure. The Muslim physicians performed
complicated eye surgery 600 years earlier than in Europe. The Muslim scientists
used paper 200 years before Europe, they had paper mills, banks, police stations
and invented spherical trigonometry(indispensable for space sciences) in the
late 10th century, solved equations of the third and fourth degree, binomials to
the nth degree, and developed differential and integral mathematics. They
discovered the force of gravitation, blood circulation, laws of motion, and even
developed they theory of evolution and taught it in their universities. They
measured the circumferences of the earth and value for specific gravities
correct to three decimal places almost a thousand years ago. There is hardly a
field of knowledge where Muslims did not research, think, or investigate and
explore or
invent something
exemplary.
PRESENT STATUS OF
MUSLIM UMMAH
The status of the Muslim Ummah is of great concern to all the
Muslim intellectuals. No one can deny that the Muslim Ummah occupies a position
which is at the lowest rung of the ladder in the world. The share of the Muslims
in Nobel Prizes and the Olympic Games is close to nothing. Muslims'
contributions to literature both general and scientific is marginal at the best.
It is very sad to see the status of Muslims in the present world at the bottom.
Muslims have been economically exploited and politically subjugated.
Economically, Muslims are poor; in education they are backward; and in science
and technology they are marginal. Even very small countries export arms,
medicine and technology to the Muslim countries. The average literacy rate is
around 38 percent and in rural areas in Muslim countries, the illiteracy rate
among Muslim women is 93 to 97 percent. This is contradictory to the message of
the Qur'an and Prophet Muhammad(SAS) as mentioned earlier. The Muslims educated
in the western world know about western books and western scholars but they know
very little about Muslims books and the intellectual achievements of the Muslims
(Fig. 1). The data presented in Table 1 show the Muslims to be at the bottom of
the three measures identified. Inspite of the comparable levels of development
the mean rate for literacy for the Muslims is 35 per cent lower than that for
the Third World, and 40 percent below the world's average. The data suggests
that almost two-thirds of the Muslims worldwide are illiterate. This low level
of literacy, evidently, is responsible for the grinding poverty, the
backwardness, and the deplorable conditions under which the vast majority of the
Muslims live at present( 1). Table 2 gives the literacy rates for the most
populous nations. Pakistan is the most advanced Muslim country in science and
technology among Muslim nations. However, the literacy rate for Pakistan, home
to the second largest Muslim ummah in the world, ranks the lowest among the most
populous nations, is even below the average for the Muslim nations. What is
shocking is India the second most populous nation in the world, has a
significantly higher rate of literacy than Pakistan and Bangladesh. At one time
the three countries constituted a single country(British India) with a literacy
rate of 12 percent on the eve of the partition in 1947(1).
When the data for the three category of nations is examined,
shown in Table 3 , the Muslim nations once again occupy the lower most position.
The rate of enrollment in higher education for Muslim is fully 45 percent lower
than that for the Third World countries, a state of affairs that could be
regarded stunning. The data presented in Table 3 suggests that the pool for the
selection of intellectual manpower, needed for development and leadership
positions, is so small that the forward momentum in the Muslim countries, at
this critical stage of industrial expansion would be seriously jeopardized
unless corrective steps are taken in the very near future. The experience of the
developed countries indicate that the provision of advanced education and
training to large numbers of young people is the only way in which modern
scientific knowledge can be introduced in a society and the state of the art
technology implemented, essential both for raising productivity and enhancing
developmental growth Examination of Table 4 shows that Pakistan, of all the
large countries, has the lowest level of enrollment in higher education.
Surprisingly, the three largest Muslim countries have higher education
enrollment rates below the average for the Muslim nations. They are also
uniformly below the rates for the Third World counterparts such as China(6
percent), India(9 percent), Brazil (12 percent), particularly the Asian ones,
even though all are at similar levels of economic development. Interestingly the
two Muslim countries with the highest levels of participation in higher
education are the small nations, shown in Table 4, of Jordan and Lebanon, whose
combined population is less than that of the city of Karachi in Pakistan(1).
A country needs to spend between 0.7 and 3.5 percent of its
GNP on R and D(Research
and Development) and achieve a target of 4000 scientists and engineers per
million of inhabitants working on R and D (2). The developing Muslim countries
are spending about 0.5 percent whereas, in contrast, the developed countries are
allocating between 2 and 5 percent of their GNP on R and D (2). Per
capita expenditure in all the OIC or Muslim countries, with the exception of
Kuwait and Tunisia has been estimated to be less than 27 US dollars as against
80 to 966 US dollars in the case of the developed countries(Table 5). The annual
average expenditure per R & D scientist or engineer for the Muslim countries
ranged between 4,800 to 76,000 US dollars (except Brunei, Kuwait and Tunisia),
as against 15,000 to 250,000 US dollars for the developed countries.
The total expenditure on R & D in the Muslim countries ranges
between 600,000 to 316 million US dollars as against 11.1 to 29.24 trillion
dollars in the case of developed countries(2).
In the case of the developed countries, about one-half to
two-third of R & D expenditure is found to be concentrated in production sector,
with the minimum allocation for the general services sector. In case of the
Muslim countries, the percentage distribution of the R & D funds between the
sectors in respect of Iran, Iraq, Pakistan and Sudan however seems relatively
better(2).
COMPARISON OF R AND
D MANPOWER
Four tables have been constructed for this purpose. In the
Table 6, R and D scientists and engineers, and technicians per million of
population and number of technicians per scientist and engineer had been
estimated. The number of scientists and engineers per million of population for
Muslim countries ranged between 16 to 924 as against 3,800 to 11,000 for the
developed countries(3). The disparity between the Third World and Muslim nations
in the number of scientists and engineers is quite striking. Despite similar
levels of development, there are more than twice as many scientists and
engineers in the Third World as in the Muslim countries, and almost eleven times
as many in the Industrialized nations. The pool of scientific manpower engaged
in meaningful economic activity in the Muslim world is simply too small to make
the kind of contribution needed by industrializing societies on the verge of
take-off. The lower level of scientific capability among the Muslims is borne
out by their inability to produce sophisticated technological goods. On the
other hand Third World countries such as South Korea, Brazil, India, Taiwan
manufacture such high technology products as T.Vs, VCRs, aircrafts, missiles,
satellites, and computers which none of the Muslim countries do.
The availability of
technicians per million of population for the Muslim countries varied between 7
to 493 as against 800 to 5,000 for the developed countries. Data from the State
Science and Technology Commission(SSTC) show that China had 640,000 full-time
R&D personnel in 1993, including 418,000 scientists and engineers. Half of them
work at Government-run R&D institutions, with a third at universities and the
rest at companies(4). In the United States, by comparison, about 80% of the
country's roughly 960,000 scientists and engineers in R&D work in private
industry, with about 12% at universities.
China spent about $7.5 billion in 1993 on science and
technology, one third of which is classified as research and development. 6.7%
of those R&D funds are used for basic research with 30.5% going to applied
research and the rest(62.8%) classified as development. The largest support goes
to life science which includes agriculture and receives about 33% of the total
and other departments such as physical sciences, chemical science, earth
science, materials and engineering science, and information science get from 10
to 18%. About 70% of its funding goes to applied science projects, with the rest
classified as basic research. By the end of the decade China will raise research
spending from 7% to 10% and eventually reaching 15%.
Table 7 gives number of scientists, engineers, and
technicians engaged in research and experimental development in the Muslim
countries compared with the developed countries. Muslim countries have one-tenth
of scientists, engineers and technicians compared with the developed countries.
Russia has 40 times more scientists, engineers, and technicians compared with
the Muslim countries.
In Table 8 distribution of R & D scientists and
engineers by field of science has been shown. Developed countries have their
maximum number of scientists and engineers working in the fields of natural
sciences and engineering and technology( about two-thirds of the total) whereas
in the case of the Muslim countries, maximum number is concentrated in
agriculture, except in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan the former Soviet Union
Republics.
The distribution of R & D scientists and engineers by sector
of performance is shown in Table 9 . In the case of the developed countries, the
highest share( about one-half to two-thirds) goes to the lot of production
sector, with general services sector receiving the minimum. However in Muslim
countries, general services and higher education sector together account for an
overwhelming intake of the R & D scientists and engineers.
If we consider the present enrolment in scientific and
technological education in the 18-23 year age group at the universities as an
index of high scientific potential, the Muslim countries average 2 % of the
relevant age group compared to the norms of around 12% for the developed
countries (5).
A similar ratio of 1:6
prevails also in respect of GNP expenditures on scientific and technological
research and development as mentioned earlier.
Table 10 gives information on the intellectual property,
particularly in the field of Patents. Table 10 gives the number of Patent
applications filed by each country, the number granted and the total number of
patents in force. Again compared to the industrial countries the Muslim
countries have fared very poorly with regard to intellectual property(6).
The Muslim world cannot afford to live without science and
technology. As seen earlier the Muslim world as a whole is backward in science
and technological development. Countries like India, Israel, Korea, Taiwan, and
China had meager natural resources. They started from scratch and their
technological advances have surprised the developed nations.
Technological advances are indispensable for a country's
national security planning and military strategy. Without scientific and
technological development no nation can compete in economics and marketing. For
effective utilization of science and technology, the Muslim world must formulate
science and technology policy that has goals, priorities, and infrastructure. As
stated in the beginning, Islam is not against the acquisition of scientific
knowledge and technology that improve Muslims' standard of living and quality of
life. Muslim world must stop importing military weapons and start manufacturing
the needed weapons including space satellites and their launching
vehicles(rockets and missiles), to safeguard their national security.
WHAT CAN BE DONE
To acquire technology optimally, Muslims must undertake a
large-scale literary program in all the basic sciences and engineering. They
should produce a large cadre of scientists and engineers and skilled workers.
All imports should be minimized, and the necessary technical know-how should be
developed to produce the imported products internally, and make preparations for
exporting quality goods. There are many Muslim countries who purchase billions
of dollars of military hardware without any knowledge of how to maintain,
develop and adapt it. Whenever a war breaks out, it is revealed they don't know
who to operate the imported military hardware. In fact technical illiteracy has
made the hardware technical toys. There is no need for Muslim countries to
invest 40 to 60 percent of the GNP on military hardware as the developed
countries invest only 6 % of the GNP for defense. The Muslim countries should
invest not more than 10 percent of the GNP on defense and the rest of the
previous defense budget should be invested on education. The budgets of
Universities should be increased by ten fold so that they can pay their faculty
well and have high quality national laboratories, libraries, and computer
facilities. High ranking universities and national academic institutions should
be established. Information superhighway through the cybernet should be a top
priority with all the universities and research laboratories connected through
the internet e-mail and world wide web. Young scientists have a hard time
finding good housing. Housing should be a standard part of a scientist's
compensation package.
To become a force to reckon with Muslim countries should
enhance R and D both in basic and applied research. The advances made by Japan,
China and Germany should be a role model for the Muslim world in transferring
newly developed technologies to industry very quickly. Every Muslim country
should build flexible technological infrastructure with strong emphasis on
state-of-the-art capability.
Muslim countries should join in many International Scientific
Unions in the diverse subjects of science. They should establish international
centers of scientific research, hold many international scientific conferences
and encourage their R & D personnel to attend international scientific
conferences in other countries. The renaissance of sciences within the Muslim
countries is contingent upon five cardinal preconditions: passionate commitment,
generous patronage, provision of security, self-governance, and
internationalization of scientific enterprise(5).
Munir Ahmed Khan, former Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic
Energy Commission made the following suggestions(7):
1. Establish an Educational Foundation in USA which will
support scholars from developing Muslim countries for short visits as well as
for long-term training;
2. Institute joint ventures between educational, scientific
and business institutions in US and those in the Muslim countries;
3. Help establish new training institutes in Muslim
countries, and support those which already exist through such means as
organized exchange visits and provision of technical advice;
4. Cosponsor scientific conferences and seminars in the
Muslim world on the pattern of the International Summer College on Physics and
Contemporary Needs which is held annually at Nathiagali in Pakistan.
5. Organize short visits of eminent Muslim
scientists/engineers to advice their counterparts in Muslim countries.
A large number of highly trained and talented Muslim
professionals live in the Western countries, including developed and
industrialized countries, such as America, Australia, Canada, Great Britain,
Germany, etc., and Japan. These eminent scientists and engineers and physicians
are willing to assist in the transfer of science and technology to the Muslim
countries. In order to achieve this the following suggestions have to be
implemented:
A central registry-clearinghouse should be developed under
the charge of a reputable Muslim Organization such as OIC(Organization of
Islamic Conference) or its designated agency such as COMSTECH located in
Islamabad, Pakistan. All Muslim scientists, engineers, health
professionals(including physicians, medical scientists, dentists, etc.) etc.,
who are willing to assist in the development of the Muslim countries should be
invited to register. The entries in the Register should contain items with
regard to applicant's educational qualifications, training experience, field of
expertise, fluency in languages, period of availability, time of notice required
to undertake the project, country of preference, honorarium expected, etc.
OIC should announce during one of its meetings or arrange a
meeting inviting all Ministers for science and technology of all the Muslim
countries about the Talent Pool Registry of able scientists, Engineers and
Health Professionals. The Register should list and have cross references with
regard to names of scientists and their field of specialization. This can be
easily done in a computer. The Muslim countries who are in need of the services
of the professionals listed in the Registry should contact the Clearinghouse
Institution detailing their specific needs. The host country can request the
services of certain individual(s) listed in the Talent Pool. All expenses
including travel, boarding and lodging should preferably be borne by the host
country or it should be borne by the Clearinghouse Institution. It is expected
that the Muslim experts would volunteer their time and will not accept any fee,
honorarium or salary for their services. This they can do in their vacation time
or during sabbatical leave if they are in teaching institutions. Those
professionals who do not have these privileges should be paid some modest
honoraria.
Wealthy Muslim countries who are blessed with natural
resources should fund generously to defray the set-up costs and operating
expenses.
Programs to assist developing countries are in existence.
These include the International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA), located in Vienna,
Austria; TOKTEN (Transfer of Technology Through Expatriate Nationals), a Program
financed by the United Nations Development Program(UNDP), WHO (World Health
Organization) and other United Nations(U.N.) branches. Apart from OIC,
IDB(Islamic Development Bank), ISESCO (Islamic Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organization) and many other philanthropic Islamic organizations at the
International level can actively participate and cooperate in achieving science
and technology Transfer to the developing Muslim countries.
CONCLUSIONS:
The Tables presented on the educational levels in Muslim
countries, the R and D scientists and engineers, the number of patents applied,
obtained and total number in force is a measure of the intellectual properties
all indicate that the Muslim countries have a long way to go to catch up with
even the average developing countries in the Third World. The Muslim world is
not prepared to face the challenges of the 21st century which comes within a
short time. Rapid growth in science and technology is essential and even
critical for the very survival of Muslim countries. Muslim intellectuals in
North America and the West have an added obligation to their home countries with
their enriched knowledge, vision, experience and scientific and technological
expertise. Their reward is in the pride and pleasure of witnessing the
advancement of their home countries in particular and the advancement of the
Muslim world in general. Let us work together to put science and technology on
the agenda of the Muslim World. This should be tackled as a top priority and
even on a War footing.
REFERENCES
1. HANIFF GM.:
Education and Development in the Muslim World. Proceedings of the
International Conference on Islamic Renaissance: Action Plan for the 21st
Century, May 26-28, 1995, Chicago. (to be published).
2. IHSANOGLU E, AND
ASLAM M.: Research and Development in the OIC Countries. The Muslim World
Journal, 10(8): 32-38, 1983
3. UNESCO: "Science and
Technology" Section 5. UNESCO Statistica Yearbook 1995.
4. SCIENCE IN CHINA:
The Long March to Topnotch Science. Science, 270(17):1134-1154,
1995.
5. SALAM MA.: Islam and
Science. Al-Tawhid 4(4): 61-83, 1987
6. STATISTICAL YEAR
BOOK 1992. Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis.
Statistical Division. UNITED NATIONS. NEW YORK, 1994
7. KHAN MA.: Technology
and the Muslim World in the 1990's. Keynote Address at the Joint Annual
Conference of the Association of Muslim Scientists and Engineers(AMSE) and the
Association of Muslim Social Scientists(AMSS), Detroit, Michigan, USA, October
26-28, 1990.
A. WESTERN
ISLAMIC
Das Capital Qur'an,
Hadith, Fiqh
Thomas Aquinas Al
Ghazali
Newton, Kepler
Al-Biruni
Marcopolo Ibn Batuta
Toynbee Ibn Khaldun
Napoleon Omar(R), Khalid bin Walid
Peter the Great Salahuddin, Suleiman the Magnificent,
Babur
World History Islamic History
William Harvey Ibn Nafis
Charles Darwin Al Masudi, Ibn Rush, Al-Biruni, Rumi
B. AL - BIRUNI
Discovered Gravity
Father of Paleontology/Evolution(through study of fossil
records)
Proved Earth is Round through Lunar Eclipses
Explained why Sun does not set for several months in Northern
Areas(saved life of a visitor to Sultan Ghazni's Court)
Measured Radius and
Circumference of Earth accurately, + or - 15 km and + or - 200 km error
Showed Earth rotates
daily on its axis and moves around the Sun, completes it annually
Indus and Ganges plains
of India were under bottom of sea
Studied Hydrostatics/Hydrology
Wrote Euclid's ELEMENTS and Ptolemy's ALMAGEST
Wrote History of India & Chronology of ancient nations.
Masudi Canon(Astronomy Encyclopedia)
Invented Spherical Trigonometry
C. AL - BATTANI
(877 - 929) ABUL - WAFA(940-998)
Sin A = tan A/(1 + tan2 A)1/2 Sin(A+B)
= SinA CosB + CosA SinB
Cos A = 1/(1 + tan2 A)1/2
ABUL HASSAN
AL-BASTI showed in the Book "SCIENCE OF
THE STARS" to the Europeans that Muslims used signs \/- for square root; for
unknown; x2 for
square
Fig.1:
A. A contrast between Western Books and Islamic Books and Achievers(Top). B. A
list of the achievements of the Universal Muslim Scientist AL-BIRUNI(Middle). C.
Mathematical Formulae and Works of Muslim Mathematicians AL-BUTTANI and
ABUL-WAFA(bottom).
Table 1*
Literacy
(Mean rates in percentages)
All Nations 63
Industrial Nations 98
Third World Nations 59
Muslim Nations 38
Table 2*
Literacy Rates for Most Populous Nations
(In percentages)
Industrial Nations
Third World Nations Muslim Nations
U.S.A. 99 China 73
Indonesia 84
Russia 99 India 50
Pakistan 36
Japan 99 Brazil 82
Bangladesh 37
Table 3*
Enrollment in Higher Education
(As a percentage of population aged 20-24)
All Nations 16
Industrial Nations 39
Third World Nations 14
Muslim Nations 8
* Adopted from
Reference 1
Table 4*
Enrollment in Higher Education For Muslim
Countries
(As a percentage of population aged 20-24)
------------------------------------------------------------------
Percent in Percent in
Country Higher
Education Country Higher Education
Lebanon 27 Malaysia 7
Jordan 22 Bangladesh 3
Syria 18 Pakistan 3
Egypt 18 Senegal 3
Kuwait 15 Sudan 3
Turkey 14
Mauritania 3
Iraq 13 Yemen 3
Saudi Arabia 12
Somalia 3
Libya 10 Guinea 1
Algeria 10 Afghanistan 1
Morocco 10 Mali 0.8
Iran 9 Chad 0.8
Indonesia 9 Burkina
Faso 0.7
Tunisia 8
Niger 0.7
-------------------------------------------------------------------
* Adapted from
Reference # 1
Table 5+
Selected Indicators for Expenditures on R &
D
Developed versus Muslim Countries
-------------------------------------------------------------------
EXPENDITURE ON R & D
------------------------------------------
Country Year Percentage
Per Capita Annual Average of
GNP in US $ per R&D
Scntst or Engnr US $
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Developed
Countries
USA 1988 2.9 568
146,708
Germany 1989 2.8 966
248,116
Japan 1991 3.0 250
148,377
Russia 1990 --- 80
14,869
Muslim Countries
Brunei 1984 0.1 23
254,206
Egypt 1991 1.0 11
23,331
Iran 1985 0.1 5 75,728
Indonesia 1988 0.2 0.87
4,801
Jordan 1986 0.3 2.86
38,188
Kuwait 1984 0.9 149
159,112
Libya 1980 0.2 27
70,253
Malaysia 1989 0.1 2.22
---
Pakistan 1987 0.9 2.93
---
Tunisia 1992 0.3 6,055
15,615,024
Turkey 1991 0.8 13.9
66,812
-------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Adapted from
Reference # 3
Table 6+
Selected Indicators for Manpower in R & D
Developed versus Muslim Countries
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Country Year Scnts and
Technicians No. of Tech- Engnrs(FTE) per million nicians per
per million population
Scntst and population Engineer
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Developed
Countries
USA 1988 3,873 ... 1.2
Germany 1989 10,701
5,114 0.9
Japan 1992 5,677 869
0.2
Russia 1990 5,856 ...
...
Muslim
Countries
Algeria 1972 16 7
0.4
Bangladesh 1974 23 10
0.5
Cameroon 1970 49 ....
....
Egypt 1991 458 340 0.7
Iran 1985 65 38 0.6
Iraq 1974 138 35 0.3
Indonesia 1988 181 ..
...
Jordan 1986 106 7 0.1
Kuwait 1984 924 343 1.4
Libya 1980 361 493 1.4
Malaysia 1988 326 89
0.2
Niger 1976 20 .. ...
Pakistan 1990 54 76 1.4
Senegal 1981 342 467
1.4
Sudan 1978 188 1.0
Tunisia 1992 388 71 0.2
Turkey 1991 209 123
0.1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Adapted from
Reference # 3
Table 7+
Number of Scientists, Engineers and
Technicians engaged in
research and experimental development in
Developed versus Muslim Countries
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Technicians
Scientists and
Engineers
Country Year Total
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Developed
Countries
USA 1988 ... 949,200
....
Germany 1989 491,800
303,850 187,950
Japan 1992 813,360
705,346 108,014
Russia 1990 .....
1,694,400 .....
Muslim
Countries
Brunei 1984 136 20 116
Egypt 1991 46,022
26,415 19,607
Iran 1985 5,048 3,194
1,854
Indonesia 1988 ....
32,038 ......
Jordan 1986 447 418
29
Kuwait 1984 2,072 1,511
561
Libya 1980 2,600 1,100
1,500
Malaysia 1988 6,707
5,537 1,170
Pakistan 1990 15,940
6,626 9,314
Qatar 1986 290 229 61
Senegal 1981 4,610
1,948 2,662
Tajikistan 1992 .....
3,974 ....
Tunisia 1992 3,860
3,260 600
Turkey 1991 13,277
11,948 1,329
Uzbekistan 1992 44,312
37,625 6,687
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Adapted from Reference # 3
Table 8+
Distribution of
Scientists and Engineers(FTE) in R and D
by Discipline: Developed versus Muslim Countries
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Natural Engi- Medical Agri- Soci.
Science neering
Sciences culture Sciences and & Tech Humanities
Country Year
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Developed
Countries
Germany(East) 1989
15,480 88,542 9,232 8,376 5,819
Japan 1981 80,442
142,316 64,408 26,598 41,316
Russia 1991 171,600
572,800 28,400 25,900 68,600
Muslim
Countries
Egypt 1991 9,620 7,726
3,677 7,157 16,366
Indonesia 1983 5,317
3,285 1,615 4,083 4,233
Jordan 1982 310 340
118 92 381
Libya 1980 230 198 130
221 321
Pakistan 1990 2,095 998
172 2,128 67
Qatar 1986 160 53 2 5
..
Tajikistan 1992 677
2,058 429 210 595
Turkey 1983 891 1,040
1,350 1,590 531
Uzbekistan 1992 6,841
13,993 3,736 1,927 9,292
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Adapted from Reference # 3
Table 9+
Distribution of Scientists and
Engineers(FTE) in R and D by Sector of Performance: Developed versus Muslim
Countries
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Country Year Production
Higher General Education Services Sector Sector
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Developed
Countries
USA 1988 716,800
135,100 97,300
Germany 1989 442,641
80,295 98,583
Japan 1992 563,018
264,055 82,978
Russia 1991 1,105,700
103,700 286,300
Muslim
Countries
Egypt 1991 12,968
61,124 20,091
Jordan 1986 23 255 140
Kuwait 1984 298 448
1,645
Lebanon 1980 ... 206
---
Libya 1980 200 800 100
Malaysia 1988 9,258
4,347 --
Pakistan 1990 --- 5,580
Qatar 1986 --- 185 --
Senegal 1981 285 826
837
Tunisia 1992 --- 5,446
1,755
Turkey 1991 2,509 8,768
3,692
Uzbekistan 1991 1,461
18,969 2,499
---------------------------------------------------------------------
+ Adapted from
Reference # 3
Table 10**
Intellectual
Property.
Patents:
Applications, Grants of Patents, and Patents in force: number for the Year 1991
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Country Application
Grants of Patents Patents
for patents in force
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Developed
Countries
USA 177,388 96,514
1,157,241
Germany 109,187 43,190
244,488
Japan 380,453 36,100
579,695
Russia 30,180 1,215
6,956
Muslim
Countries
Algeria 139 617 ---
Bangladesh 113 78 597
Egypt 787 403 ---
Indonesia 1,336 --- --
Iran 427 286 ---
Iraq 322 101 913
Jordan --- --- ---
Kuwait --- --- ---
Libya 47 --- ---
Malaysia 2,427 512 ----
Morocco 356 303 ----
Niger --- --- ---
Pakistan 524 --
Saudi Arabia 519 ---
---
Senegal --- --- ---
Sudan 4,411 37 ---
Tunisia 128 180 4,090
Turkey 1,205 694 6,351
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
** Adapted from
Reference # 6
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